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The State of Captive Waterfowl in the United States Michael R. Lubbock Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center
INTRODUCTION
There is no question that waterfowl collectors have in general overlooked many species that have considerable biological importance. To demonstrate this avicultural prejudice, recent surveys of waterfowl populations in zoological and private collections were conducted by the International Wild Waterfowl Association. The result of these surveys will be presented along with the issuance of the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List, which is designed to further highlight the species in critical need of intensified managed breeding programs.
Before any improvement in the state of captive waterfowl can be addressed, it is necessary to review the manner in which the artful science of aviculture made its decline. This topic will be presented from the perspective of both the private aviculturalist as well as that of zoological organizations.
The real purpose of noting the urgency of any situation is to make suggestions as to how the crisis can be reversed. It is understood that my prescription for preserving rare and endangered species of waterfowl may be considered unlikely, if not impossible. The solution will require renewed cooperation between groups that have distanced themselves from one another over the past thirty years. It will also include a heavy dose of optimism that the general public will become willing supporters in reversing the plight of wild waterfowl. Despite the improbable course to the resolution of this issue, the preservation of waterfowl deserves the best coordinated effort that can possibly be assembled.
METHOD AND RESULTS OF WATERFOWL SURVEYS
One concern among aviculturalists is the disappearance of certain waterfowl species that once were very common in collections around the country, but are becoming increasingly scarce. In 2003, after having difficulty finding certain birds for my own collection at Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center (SHWC), I led the effort from within the International Wild Waterfowl Association (IWWA) to conduct a waterfowl survey that would accurately identify the number and location of ducks in captive populations of both private breeders and the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) members in the United States. The survey was conducted on 72 species of ducks selected by the IWWA Conservation Committee. Questionnaires were completed and returned from 100 members of the AZA and 51 private aviculturists. An additional survey was conducted in 2004 by the IWWA Conservation Committee to determine if similar trends were occurring with captive species of geese. It should be noted that many survey recipients did not respond and some private sector aviculturists were not aware that the survey was being conducted. Therefore the survey results do not represent a complete census of captive birds in the U.S.
The IWWA Waterfowl Survey, which was published in the Spring 2004 issue of the IWWA Newsletter, revealed a list of duck species that were either absent in American collections or had severe weaknesses in their gene pool. The additional report compiled by the IWWA Conservation Committee exposed a similar trend occurring with some species of captive geese. Next, the Conservation Committee determined the most vulnerable species and adopted immediate action to stabilize those populations. The committee initially selected the Hawaiian Duck, Chinese Spot-billed Duck and Baer's Pochard. Funds were budgeted to support a breeding program for these birds and a goal was set to add three species each year to the program.
I took the additional step of identifying and listing all of the vulnerable captive species using not only the IWWA survey results as a guide, but also my extensive experience in obtaining captive bird species from around the world and distributing them within North America. In March 2007, I developed the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List, which focuses on birds that were once numerous in collections but have recently declined to levels where sustainability is uncertain. While some of the birds on the list are still numerous in the wild, a subset of them is becoming increasingly threatened. The list is designed to focus the attention of American aviculturists on waterfowl species that require immediate breeding programs.
Utilizing funds available from the IWWA for obtaining the most vulnerable birds, Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center imported pairs of Baer's Pochard, Pacific Black Duck and Chinese Spot-billed Ducks. Following is an update of the entire Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List.
Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List Assessment as of May 2007
Wandering Whistling-Duck This bird was never numerous in captivity, but it has declined recently. We have three birds at SHWC that came from San Diego Zoo and are all related; there is one at Palm Beach Zoo and one elsewhere, and that is all that exist in the U.S. It may be possible to obtain some from Europe.
Spotted Whistling-Duck Close monitoring is necessary for this species. The captive population tends to go up and down very quickly and we realized two years ago that we were down in the number of breeding pairs after once having as many as 40 birds. When the data is analyzed one might think there is more hope than there actually may be. There are some in zoos, but most of them are really old and could die out in the next few years. Several are already post-reproductive. We have only two breeding pairs at SHWC and there is only a handful around the country. There are not many in Europe, so we need to concentrate on breeding them.
West Indian (Cuban) Whistling-Duck Fortunately, several zoos are breeding them, so the captive population is up from where it was a few years ago. Still, a close watch is needed.
New World Comb Duck The captive population of these birds in North America is hanging by a thread. We have only one male and five females at SHWC, so we may need to import some from Europe where they are more numerous.
Patagonian Crested Duck This bird tends to be aggressive; therefore, most zoos do not like to keep them. Also, the Patagonian is one of those little brown ducks that zoos generally do not get selected for exhibit. At SHWC, we recognized at the beginning of a recent breeding season that we were down to just two pairs. We had plenty of females, but only two males. There may be less than 20 birds total in the U.S.
Hawaiian Duck Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center received a pair of Hawaiian Ducks from a private collector in New York who recently imported some of these birds. In the wild, the Hawaiian Duck has hybridized with mallards to some extent, so there is a question as to how pure the bloodlines are, but what we have is as close to pure one can get today.
Philippine Duck This is an example of a bird that became rare in captivity four years ago, but we are beginning to increase the population again. The key is to have a reliable system in place to monitor captive populations so that we do not get to the point of realizing too late that a species is in deep trouble.
Chinese Spot-billed Duck Although there were several in the U.S. a few years ago, they had disappeared until the IWWA imported three pairs in May 2007. We are initiating a breeding program at SHWC. Hopefully, this bird will once again be a part of many collections in America.
Indian Spot-billed Duck This species is slowly coming back after being extremely restricted in its availability. Concentrated breeding at SHWC has contributed to its numbers in the U.S.
Pacific Black Duck These birds nearly disappeared from U.S. collections. The IWWA imported a few two years ago or there probably would not be any around today.
African Yellow-billed Duck We are concentrating on the African Yellow-bill this year because their numbers are declining rapidly in within the country. Many of the ones in zoos are old and post-reproductive.
Cape Shoveler These have almost completely disappeared in North America and Europe. Collectors tend to ignore the Cape Shoveler since they are not as striking in color as the Northern or Australian Shovelers. There is one male in the African Aviary at the Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Park & Eco-Center and that is possibly the only one in the country. There is potential for us to import some from Africa.
Australian Grey Teal We formally had these birds, but now we are down to a single female. There are few in Europe, so it will be a struggle to get the Grey Teal back. It is not as attractive as the East Indian Grey Teal, which puts this bird at a disadvantage. If we can increase the numbers again, perhaps zoos would be interested in utilizing them in Australia-themed exhibits.
Red-billed Pintail This bird must be monitored closely. There are not many in collections, although they are popular in Africa-themed exhibits at zoos. We may be able to import them from Africa and increase the population again.
Garganey These are starting to disappear in captivity, so they must be carefully watched. There are some in private collections. SHWC is attempting to increase its population this year.
Puna Teal This is another species to monitor closely. Their numbers are decreasing in captivity and there are some inbreeding issues. SHWC focused on breeding Puna Teal in 2007 and already have some young ones.
Silver (Versicolor) Teal These birds are not as popular as the similar-looking Hottentot Teal and this may be affecting the captive population of not only the Silver Teal, but also the Puna Teal, which also looks similar. More Silver Teal need to be bred annually.
Australian White-eyed duck Because this bird is often misidentified in zoo collections, it is difficult to determine if the ISIS data is accurate. Either way, the numbers are low. SHWC is down to two pairs of this duck. Fertility is very poor with our pairs and we do not rear many.
Baer's Pochard There are more of these birds in Europe than in North American collections. The IWWA imported birds two years ago and we now have two pairs at SHWC and hope to breed more this year. These are the only Baer's Pochards in the country and they are becoming very rare in the wild as well.
New Zealand Scaup This bird definitely needs monitoring. No new bloodlines of this species have been brought into Europe or anywhere else in the last forty years. We need to preserve what we have currently. Fortunately they breed very well and there does not seem to be any inbreeding problems. After bringing in some birds from Europe two years ago, we now have four pairs and already have eggs this year.
Ashy-headed Goose This bird needs to be watched with extreme care. As far as zoo collections are concerned, this bird is essentially gone. Last year some were imported from Europe, where the species is more abundant, but the Ashy-headed is in critical need of an expanded breeding effort.
Ruddy-headed Goose There are more Ruddy-headed Geese in U.S. collections than Ashy-headed Geese. Although we probably do not need to import anymore, it will be necessary to watch their numbers.
Lesser White-fronted Goose This small-sized goose with a beautiful gold eye-ring is fairly popular among collectors, even small ones. They are doing well in the U.S., but monitoring is needed. There are some in Europe. Geese in general are more expensive to maintain due to the large amount of grazing area required, so there are very few geese bred every year compared to the ducks. Orinoco Goose This species' population is definitely one that needs to be carefully monitored because they are very close to being lost. There are only a few in U.S. zoos. SHWC and several private breeders are attempting to increase their numbers, but we are all working with the same bloodlines. There are some in zoos in South America from which we might be able to import a couple of males to improve the genetic situation. Wild Orinocos are decreasing rapidly in number due to loss of tropical forest habitat in Venezuela and other areas of their territory. The Orinoco needs a sustainable captive population for protection.
Waterfowl Species Success Stories
Cape Teal This is an example of a bird that became rare in captivity three years ago, but we were able to bring the population back up. Private aviculturists and a few zoos noticed the problem in time and began to concentrate on breeding them. Now there is a substantial population of Cape Teal.
Meller's Duck Two years ago, SHWC imported these birds from Europe through the IWWA. Now the U.S. population is coming back.
East Indian Grey Teal Two years ago SHWC brought in two pairs and now through our breeding program we have a sufficient number of this Grey Teal sub-species.
Southern Pochard Ten years ago there were none of these birds in the U.S. Six years ago SHWC imported three pairs and now the numbers are good.
DISCUSSION
The results of the IWWA Waterfowl Surveys clearly indicated that certain species of both ducks and geese are rapidly disappearing from managed populations. The most seriously affected are those species that share the characteristics of being unpopular with the viewing public and having low market value. A myriad of social and administrative conditions have combined to cause the decline in birds on the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List, obscuring the future for these species and the future of avicultural science as well. In order to find our bearings on these issues, it is necessary to review how the current state of affairs came to be in the United States.
The Declining Number of Large Private Waterfowl Collections
Nearly all of the large private waterfowl collections in North America that were in existence 15 years ago are gone. Many of the owners have died or retired their collections, the end result being the demise of nearly all of the large private waterfowl collections and the birds they once contained. When I arrived in Long Island, New York in 1969 to supervise the sizable collection for Winston Guest, there were seven major collections just on this one island of New York. Now none of them remain. The same thing has happened with the major private collections in New England. Except for the Ripley collection, they have all disappeared. During this time, no new large waterfowl collections have come into existence anywhere in the country. The only one that has increased in size in the last 10 years is the 3,000 birds in the waterfowl collection I founded at Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center in Scotland Neck, North Carolina.
Membership levels in most avicultural societies have remained roughly the same over the last 20 years, but the size of most of the members' collections is very small, perhaps ten pairs of birds or less, whereas they used to have as many as 60 species. There are no signs that activity in raising waterfowl privately is likely to come back to the level it once was in America during the 1970's.
The same decline in private aviculturists is evident in Europe, where once there was a thriving interest in keeping waterfowl. Most of the small European collections are gone, although some of the large collections remain. However, owners of the large collections tend to breed mostly expensive birds that sell at a high price. Most do not concentrate on raising the birds on the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List.
Possible Reasons for Decline in Private Waterfowl Collections
The decline in keeping waterfowl seems to be related to two primary factors: impinging regulatory issues from government agencies and a general lack of interest in aviculture among young people, especially with respect to waterfowl species.
Economics is not a major factor in the decline of large waterfowl collections. The people who once owned these collections, for the most part, did not do so to make money. When they sold birds it was to cover their expenses-not to make a profit from raising them. The activity was mainly a hobby for wealthy individuals that had a property with enough acreage to build ponds, money to invest in the necessary infrastructure and an interest in avian husbandry. I have never advised anyone to start collecting and breeding waterfowl as a business or to make a profit. They may be able to cover their expenses by selling birds, but it is first and foremost a hobby.
There are areas where costs have greatly increased due to additional regulatory requirements. This has particularly affected the remaining small private breeders. For example, the USDA requires a 30-day mandatory quarantine on all imported waterfowl at a current cost of $6.50 per bird per day, which can add up to a large sum if one is importing a great many birds. This regulation is a result over issues the USDA has with the chicken industry. In addition, state agencies have imposed an increasing number of expensive and time-consuming tests for avian-related disease on birds being shipped interstate. Air transportation companies have established onerous restrictions on shipping birds, while simultaneously increasing fares for birds meeting the new criteria. Various environmental regulations in some states affect the testing of water run-off in ponds.
The other major factor in the decline of aviculture is the reduction in the number of people entering the field. Very few young people seem to have an interest in aviculture compared to thirty years ago. Especially in Europe, many young people once learned aviculture techniques by getting jobs at the large waterfowl collections owned by wealthy individuals. Some maintained their interest at older ages by becoming the supervisor for one of these large collections or by establishing their own collections. Not only have most of the large private collections vanished, but jobs at zoological institutions that require avian husbandry skills are also few in number.
The Declining Number of Large Waterfowl Collections at American Zoos
The Association of Zoos and Aquariums' current database of waterfowl held by zoological entities reflects a marked decline from previous decades. Most of the major waterfowl collections that once existed at many zoos have slowly gone down in numbers. The San Diego Zoo, Bronx Zoo, Philadelphia Zoo, Saint Louis Zoo, and San Antonio Zoo all once had very large and extensive collections of waterfowl. During the past 25 years all of these zoos have all drastically reduced their holdings of waterfowl. SeaWorld San Diego, which once boasted the world's largest waterfowl collection, currently has only a modest number of birds compared to their zenith. Few zoos conduct any substantial breeding program for the few species they maintain. The only American zoo that has added significantly to its collection in recent years is Palm Beach Zoo in West Palm Beach, Florida.
The demise of the major waterfowl collections at zoological institutions has severely reduced the capacity for maintaining the birds on the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List. The lack of space for these birds is a contributing factor as to why they are so rare today. It also greatly diminished the number of skilled aviculturalists and waterfowl biologists, thereby eliminating a major portion of waterfowl expertise in the country. As a result, a valuable piece of avian legacy was lost in the field of natural science.
Possible Reasons for the Decline of Waterfowl in Zoo Collections
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the reduction of waterfowl on display at zoos corresponds with the general public's relative lack of interest in waterfowl compared to more exotic animals, such as pachyderms, big cats, bears and primates. Space for animals on exhibit is competitive and assigned on the recommendation of Taxonomic Advisory Group (TAG) leaders and other internal decision-making criteria. In the face of this competitive environment for exhibit space, waterfowl often become an after-thought in many zoo collections. Some waterfowl may be utilized as "background interest" within a specific geographical-based display, such as an African exhibit or a tropical rain forest environment, but rarely are they presented at zoos on the basis of educating the public on the importance of preserving or understanding waterfowl species. There are some zoos in the U.S. that display impressive bird collections but have absolutely no waterfowl at all.
Many zoos have large natural or man-made ponds within view of visitors. These ponds often become self-populated with mallards and Canada Geese, providing a ready-made waterfowl exhibit. There is little incentive to absorb the expense to purchase or breed birds and place them among the local inhabitants. In addition, laws have been enacted that make it difficult to remove native birds, even if a zoo or nature center desired to do so in order to display a collection on their ponds.
In addition, there are very few zoological collections in the country devoted exclusively to birds. The only major ones in existence are Tracy Aviary in Salt Lake City and the National Aviary in Pittsburgh. The Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Park & Eco-Center in Scotland Neck, NC, is the only major avian collection which specializes in exhibiting waterfowl. America compares poorly to Europe, where bird gardens are prolific and considered a status symbol for private breeders and royalty. In Asia as well, bird parks attract a large number of visitors as witnessed by the existence of the perhaps the world's largest avian collection at Jurong BirdPark in Singapore, which boasts over 9,000 birds from 600 species.
Compounding the problem is the lack of avian husbandry knowledge among zoo keepers, especially with regard to breeding waterfowl. This is certainly understandable, since as previously noted, zoos keep minimal numbers of waterfowl if any at all. Some of the zoos that display waterfowl do not make any effort to breed them. As a result, the competency level for providing proper nesting requirements, egg collection, incubation techniques and rearing methods for waterfowl are dismally low. For many years zoos have been discouraged from breeding their birds. In 2006, the AZA Anseriformes Taxon Advisory Group implemented the Duck DERP. The acronym stands for Display (to the public), Education and Research Population (for science-oriented and conservation research programs). This program has the potential to revitalize zoological breeding programs for rare waterfowl species, while providing needed display space and public education.
Although money for conservation projects has significantly increased over the years, the commitment among zoological organizations in exhibiting, breeding and educating the public about waterfowl is at a thirty-year low.
Thinking Beyond the "Endangered Species List"
The AZA has a Waterfowl TAG that has taken on the task of identifying and listing species that are vulnerable and need support in order to sustain the population. But the TAG has primarily listed birds that are rare in the wild. The Madagascar Teal, for instance, is on the Waterfowl TAG list and actions have been taken to expand the breeding program for this bird.
While this is undoubtedly beneficial for birds struggling for survival in their native habitat, there are also species of waterfowl that are rare in captivity but are not on the TAG list. Most of these birds are presently not rare in the wild; however, they certainly could become so. If that happens and we do not have a sufficient captive population, then these species are at risk of becoming extinct both in captivity and the wild. The Madagascar Teal had the fortunate advantage of being available in a captive population. No birds or fertile eggs were recently taken from the wild in order to initiate this survival breeding program. In fact, taking wild birds and eggs of endangered species is generally banned internationally, and even when allowed, may occur too late to be successful or sustain appropriate genetic distribution.
With the Waterfowl TAG focused on endangered species, there is little incentive at zoological institutions to make room for the birds on the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List. In order to prevent the loss of these biologically important species, zoos and private aviculturists have a responsibility to work together in providing space for these birds and their offspring, despite the current trend for these two groups to be separated.
The Role of Private Aviculturalists in the Restoration of Rare Waterfowl Species
Although Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center currently has the largest number of waterfowl in North America, there are limitations to how many vulnerable species can be raised there before birds need to be dispersed to other suitable locations. We absolutely need zoos, nature centers and private aviculturalists to offer their facilities as destination sites for rare captive birds. Having such a large portion of America's vulnerable species concentrated in one location puts the birds at additional risk due to exposure to weather-related events, such as a tornado or hurricane, as well as exposure to an outbreak of disease.
Developing a new breed of private waterfowl collector is a major goal of the IWWA. The primary motive for breeding any bird species should be conservation-oriented. The profit motive needs to be removed from the equation. All participants should be guided by sound ethical principle and a willingness to cooperate with other aviculturalists to help preserve wild birds. The goal of all avian propagators should be to help birds survive the continued loss of habitat in the wild and reduced numbers in managed populations. When private aviculturalists get to the point that they gain more satisfaction from raising 50 White-headed Ducks of which 25 are released in the wild (or at least could be) than the profit that could be made from raising those 50 ducks, that is when the private community will become a major asset in waterfowl conservation.
Despite the fact that many aviculturalists, both private and zoological, share these altruistic qualities, there are many barriers to conservation-oriented waterfowl breeding. One barrier for the small private aviculturalists is the cost associated with raising rare captive birds. The IWWA has established a fund that pays qualified aviculturalists for the importation and quarantine expenses of the most vulnerable ducks. A portion of membership dues and other financial activities goes into the conservation fund, so that all the IWWA members are supporting the effort. The conservation fund is utilized to import species that the Waterfowl Survey identifies as vulnerable. These birds are owned by the IWWA and judiciously dispersed to members that want them and have been approved through the Conservation Committee. We must be sure that the aviculturalist has the facilities as well as the experience to properly handle and raise these birds.
All breeding projects for birds owned by the IWWA birds allow the member to recoup expenses by selling offspring of the birds provided by IWWA to other aviculturalists. The member must maintain records of the birds and inform the IWWA of any dispersal. However, the original breeding pairs remain the property of the IWWA. If deemed necessary, the IWWA may reassign the original birds to other breeding projects. I consider this to be a proactive approach to making sure that a sufficient number of rare captive birds are monitored and sustained. AZA breeding programs do not currently work in this manner. The zoos do not own the birds and all of the birds are dispersed by the TAG. Hopefully, if the birds are not too expensive, some zoos may recognize the logic of this proactive approach and work in cooperation with the IWWA in providing space for these birds.
By adopting a conservation purpose for sustaining the birds on the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List, many more people can be involved in raising waterfowl. The private aviculturalist must first realize that there is little or no money to be made in rearing birds. If the profit motive dominates, then the proper dispersion of the birds will never occur. In the past the profit motive was one reason many people began breeding birds, especially in Europe. It is the responsibility of groups, such as the IWWA, to encourage breeders to act in the best interest of the birds' long-term survival and to instill in its members a commitment to saving species. We also need to assure best breeding practices by offering advanced avicultural training as well as funding for aviculturalists willing to engage in conservation management of waterfowl.
If the IWWA model for engaging reliable private breeders can be expanded, then additional space will become available for these vulnerable species to reside and eventually expand in number. I believe the trend among many aviculturalists today is to have a rare bird in the collection with the satisfaction of knowing that he or she is helping preserve a species. This constitutes a complete rethinking of the role of the private aviculturalist. By replacing the profit motive with a species-conservation motive, the private aviculturalist can become a major contributor to the sustainability of rare birds.
Saving wild populations by utilizing managed populations
By adopting a proactive approach to sustaining the vulnerable captive birds in Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List, we also take a step toward preserving species in the wild. Although only a few of the birds on this list are highly threatened outside of captive populations, many are declining in numbers in the wild. If any of these birds were to reach crisis levels in the wild, we stand a much better chance of preserving the bird, or possibly returning it to the wild, if we first succeed at re-establishing them in managed populations.
Managed populations may also serve as a valuable tool in re-introducing endangered waterfowl populations in the wild. A few breed-and-release programs are in the discussion phase and others may be initiated. To bring these projects to realization, the government agencies and other stakeholders in the host country must first be involved in the decision-making process of the release plan. This requires receiving input and ultimately agreement among all interested parties, which can sometimes drag on for years. However, getting local support for the project is vital. Students or interns from the host country can be trained at an appropriate avicultural location in the U.S. or Europe. The students return to their native country to conduct the necessary field work and education of the local people concerning the project - another crucial step that must be implemented prior to the release of any birds.
Once all preliminary work has been completed, the actual bird release can commence. Captive-bred parent birds from established collections would be sent to the selected release sites in the field. None of these parent birds will be released; instead they become part of a breeding program at the release site, conducted by the interns and supervised by avicultural consultants from the U.S., Europe or elsewhere. The parent birds are clipped, so they cannot fly out of the breeding compound when the netting is removed at the appropriate time. The adolescent birds fly out and eventually choose mates and establish territories in the release area.
This type of breed-and-release method was successfully utilized in Spain during the recovery of the White-headed Duck population, for which I was a consultant. By allowing input from all the diverse groups involved, consensus was reached on the essential steps needed to restore the wild population.
Without sufficient numbers of birds in managed collections, wild species will be unnecessarily at risk for extinction. It is imperative that we not overlook the birds of the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List as potential breed-and-release projects. Some of these birds have declining wild populations that someday may benefit from recovery projects, but only if we have sufficient numbers of these birds in our collections.
The Role of Education in the Restoration of Rare Waterfowl Species
In 1984 I went to Guatemala on a mission to preserve the Atitlan Giant Grebe (known locally as the Poc) and Black-bellied Whistling-Duck. The ten or so remaining Poc lived on Lake Atitlan, on which were three large Indian villages. It became very difficult for me to go to these villages and ask people not to hunt the birds or take the eggs for food just because the bird was very rare. How do you convince them to follow this advice when they are struggling to feed their families and this bird lives on their doorsteps? Sadly, we did not succeed as the Atitlan Giant Grebe is now extinct.
We tried a different tactic to recover the Black-bellied Whistling Duck, which had dropped significantly in numbers in Guatemala. After putting up nest boxes at specified locations, we told the locals that the birds would nest in these boxes and that they could take the first clutch of eggs to eat. The second clutch of eggs should be left untouched for the birds to rear their young, but if they did this, the following year they might have three times as many eggs to eat. The villagers followed these instructions and the results were astounding. The population of Black-bellied Whistling Ducks grew quickly and the villagers even began making their own nest boxes to attract more birds. A more recent project is being implemented in Venezuela to support the declining Orinoco Goose population by again erecting nest boxes. This project will only be successful if enough local people recognize a benefit from the conservation activities there. In this case, several owners of large ranches located in the llanos, have agreed to the boxes being erected on their property in order to increase eco-tourism.
The broader point to these examples is that conservation goals are rarely successful when people have no incentive to act in ways that we might deem to be environmentally responsible. Whether it's the native villages, private breeders, zoos or the general public, just telling people to act in a certain way may not produce the result we are seeking. Duck hunters help to protect wetlands because that's how ducks are preserved in order to perpetuate managed hunting. Were it not for the preservation activities associated with duck hunting, waterfowl in this country would be in much worse condition in the wild and have much less habitat. In this case, the hunter has become educated and motivated to preserve wetlands as well as the ducks that live in them. We need to continue to search for more "win-win" situations for a much larger segment of the American population, inducing more reasons for people to take conservation action specifically for waterfowl.
Advancements in Avicultural Science
One irony in the decline of waterfowl husbandry in North America is that as the number of collections and people breeding them have decreased, advancements in aviculture actually make rearing birds more efficient than ever. Since my entry into aviculture over 40 years ago, there have been remarkable improvements in the feeds, methods, and equipment utilized in avian husbandry. These advancements have resulted in the increased survival rate of hatchlings and the number of birds that can be successfully managed on a site.
While feed is still a sizable expense in breeding waterfowl, nutritional improvements and production advancements not only make feeding more economically efficient, but also contribute to the health and survivability of the birds. The availability of the floating pellet allows for efficient and healthy feeding. The development of the seabird pellet has eliminated the need to purchase fresh fish as a food source. Forced air incubators with more precise temperature control also contributed to the improved hatchling survival rate.
A somewhat serendipitous improvement in the breeding of wild waterfowl is the creation of more captive generations. While we are losing genetic diversity as we produce more captive generations, the later generations are becoming more acclimated to the methods employed by aviculturists, making them easier to breed in captivity. For example, certain species that once nested exclusively in log boxes, now have adapted to porch boxes. Years ago, Black-necked Swans always nested in December or January, but as we get more and more captive generations they are now breeding closer to our spring.
While increasing the number of people engaged in aviculture is certainly desirable, it is comforting to note that advancements in avicultural science can efficiently produce more birds from fewer facilities. This alone will not turn the tide for the rare captive waterfowl species, but it does provide an important safety net.
The Role of Education in the Re-vitalization of Aviculture
One enormous challenge to the field of aviculture is the lack of a new generation entering the profession. It is disturbing to note how few young people have any interest in raising birds. The interest of most youth is focused on leisure pursuits, such as computers or electronic games. The prospect of the hard work required to learn aviculture seems to be unattractive to an increasing segment of the population. Of the 360 volunteers or zoo interns that have been trained at Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center over the past 18 years, only five percent to ten percent are still involved in aviculture at any level. As a result, the next generation of aviculturists will need to be carefully nourished and encouraged.
In order to reverse this trend, hands-on experience with waterfowl and husbandry training need to be offered to those youth expressing interest in this endeavor. Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center provides a volunteer program that hopefully will attract promising young aviculturists. Our volunteers come from all over North America, as well as countries in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America. Most of them stay at Sylvan Heights for one to three months, giving them plenty of time to learn husbandry techniques and see the end result of their labor. Some of our volunteers are financially supported through scholarships offered by the IWWA and the American Pheasant and Waterfowl Society, which enables us to attract highly qualified young aviculturalists who may otherwise need to work at a summer job rather than learn avian husbandry.
Also an increasing number of zoo keepers are no longer receiving significant experience in avian husbandry because zoo protocols have drastically limited the number of birds that can be bred throughout American zoos. In order to address this problem, the Sylvan Heights Avian Husbandry and Management Program was developed. Zoo and wildlife professionals spend two weeks with the Sylvan Heights staff at the Avian Breeding Center, gaining knowledge and practical application of advanced avian husbandry techniques. To my knowledge, this is the only professional level training program in the country that focuses on avian husbandry.
It is vital that both young people and the zoological community are provided access to waterfowl husbandry instruction and experience in order to reinvigorate aviculture in America. Sylvan Heights is intensely committed to training the next generation of aviculturalists. However, other organizations concerned with biological sciences need to come forward in establishing scholarships and grants that allow youths as well as wildlife professionals to pursue their avicultural interests.
Cooperative Waterfowl Conservation Efforts
When one considers the low participation level of zoological organizations in waterfowl breeding and education, it is difficult to postulate how these institutions would be able to lead the way to a brighter future for the birds of the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List or to a resurgence of interest in waterfowl aviculture. Sylvan Heights has strong relationships with many bird curators at zoos, the result of which is certainly encouraging. Unfortunately, it remains a difficult task to convince most zoos to acquire, display and breed waterfowl species that are not resident on a TAG or SSP. There is also an increasing reluctance at some zoos to develop cooperative relationships, even on a selective basis, with non-AZA accredited organizations, despite the obvious competence and ethical standards of many private waterfowl aviculturalists. Zoo education programs rarely feature waterfowl species, even at zoos that have a fair-sized collection. Wetland education programs at zoos and nature centers frequently focus on the plants, mammals and amphibians found in these habitats while practically ignoring the wetlands' importance to the survivability of waterfowl.
As a result, the primary effort to bolster threatened waterfowl species and educate the American public and wildlife professionals on waterfowl issues (including aviculture) must emanate from a small, but visionary group of zoos and private aviculturalists that understand the benefit of blending resources to support waterfowl conservation. Ultimately, this small cooperative group must be widely expanded. In addition, the general public, corporate America and private foundations must become aware of the need to financially support these efforts on behalf of waterfowl populations in the wild as well as in managed collections. In order to achieve this level of institutional, corporate and civic collaboration, these groups must first become aware of the need for waterfowl conservation.
The Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Park and Eco-Center in Scotland Neck, North Carolina, is designed to educate people about waterfowl and the importance of preserving them. Our goal is to tell visitors the story of every species--where it comes from, what habitat it prefers and why the species is important to our world. The Center also immerses visitors into a wetland setting so the feel and scope of a primary waterfowl habitat can be fully experienced. We hope the public will react to what they see and hear by caring more, becoming more aware and wanting take action to help all birds, but especially those on the brink of extinction. The hand-feeding exhibit that is being constructed at the Waterfowl Park is designed to produce close encounters with birds for children and adults. Amazing results are accomplished through this type of one-on-one experience that cannot be duplicated by merely viewing a bird in an aviary. We certainly want the visitor's experience to be enjoyable, but it's not our primary goal to entertain the public. Hopefully, enjoyment will be gained from knowing their admission fee or membership is an investment in the future of waterfowl.
Establishing the Waterfowl Park and Eco-Center in a region of the country rich in waterfowl habitat provides an avenue to reach the general public, civic leaders, conservation groups, and corporate America on matters concerning waterfowl preservation. Equally important, the Eco-Center presents opportunities to form high-level cooperative programs among experts in the fields of aviculture, ecology, veterinary science, behavioral biology, conservation, zoology and education. The resulting actions should be focused on joint projects for breeding endangered species as well as the birds on the Rare Captive Waterfowl Species List. In addition, efforts should be expanded to support species critically endangered in the wild.
CONCLUSIONS
Clearly the state of captive waterfowl is at a critical point. Dozens of species are on the verge of being lost in collections and perhaps someday lost in the wild as a result. Despite a decrease in private and zoological collections of waterfowl and the expertise to manage the ones which endure, there still remains reason to maintain hope that the future is not as bleak as it may appear.
A fortunate development is recent years is the increased interest in birds and bird-related activities among the general public, such as bird watching, avian photography and backyard bird feeding. These hobbyist pursuits offer a great opportunity for avian education programs to connect a broad segment of the public with issues concerning waterfowl. Involving and motivating the public also increases the prospect of engaging civic and corporate entities. More of the conservation and educational funding provided by wildlife organizations, private foundations, corporate sponsors and civic groups, needs to be directed toward the cooperative efforts of organizations like the Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Park and Eco-Center and other visionary zoological conservation programs for waterfowl preservation.
I also continue to hold out hope that zoological organizations join with private aviculturalists on a broader level than what has occurred in recent years. I look forward to a time when zoos and private waterfowl aviculturists work together on preserving the most susceptible waterfowl species. Time is growing short for many of these birds. Whatever barriers exist that would prevent full cooperation need to be addressed very soon or we will lose these avian treasures.
Waterfowl species in peril deserve the greatest cooperative effort that zoos, conservation societies, breeding facilities, nature centers and the educated public can muster on their behalf. Waterfowl deserve these efforts as much as any other threatened species. Those "little brown ducks", which are often overlooked and underappreciated, are as precious to mankind as the most colorful macaw, the largest whale or the most endearing baby panda. Internal differences between organizations should never be a reason for losing even one species of waterfowl. I would rather see the last of a species alive in captivity than dead in a museum.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Nicolas Hill, Curator of Aviculture at Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center, and Brad Hazelton, General Curator at the Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Park and Eco-Center for their contributions to this paper and for their role in preserving wild waterfowl. I would also like to express my appreciation to Arnold Schouten, IWWA Conservation Committee Chair, who compiled the waterfowl survey data and to Dale True, Avian Programs Coordinator at Sylvan Heights Waterfowl Center for his work in editing this paper.
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